lignocellulosic biomass for the production of cellulase by fungus: Application in Pulp Deinking
Lignocellulosic Biomass
Several agro residues such as potato peel, rice rusk, corn cob, and sugarcane bagasse are rich in lignocellulosic biomass. These can be used as substrates in solid-state fermentation (SSF) for the production of industrially important enzymes like cellulases and lipases. These low-cost and valuable substrates provide an excellent medium for fungal growth, especially when supplemented with a rich nitrogen source.
Why Use Fungi for Enzyme Production?
A common question is whether fungi are suitable and safe for enzyme production. The answer is yes, but with proper precautions in laboratory settings. While bacteria can also be used, fungi offer better growth on solid substrates and are generally less pathogenic than bacteria. Fungal species such as Aspergillus niger are particularly effective at converting lignocellulosic waste into enzymes.
Qualitative Check
To evaluate the cellulase-producing potential of fungal isolates, qualitative methods like the Congo red assay are used. Fungi are first cultured on CMC agar plates and then flooded with Congo red dye. After 15 minutes, the plates are rinsed with NaCl solution. A zone of clearance indicates cellulase activity—a positive sign for further research (ResearchGate, 2025)[¹].
Why Fungal Fermentation is Favored
- High yield of enzymes
- Utilization of agricultural waste
- Lower production cost
Cellulase Enzyme Mechanism
During SSF, fungi secrete a complex set of enzymes that break down cellulose. These include:
- Endoglucanases: Act on internal bonds and cleave cellulose chains.
- Exoglucanases: Act on chain ends, releasing cellobiose.
- β-glucosidases: Convert cellobiose into glucose monomers.
Sustainability and Economic Benefits
This fungal-based enzyme production method is both economically viable and environmentally friendly. It reduces reliance on synthetic chemicals, converts waste into value-added products, cuts down on landfill, and improves the cost-efficiency of recycled paper production.
Application in Paper Pulp Deinking
How It Works:
Cellulases hydrolyze cellulose fibers around ink particles, loosening the ink for easier removal during washing and flotation. This leads to:
- Improved ink detachment
- Reduced chemical usage
- Enhanced brightness and cleanliness of recycled pulp
- Increased fiber strength and quality
Advantages Over Chemical Deinking:
- Lower energy consumption
- Minimal fiber damage
- Less toxic and more biodegradable
Process Overview
- Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass to remove lignin
- Inoculation with selected fungal strains under SSF conditions
- Extraction and purification of cellulase enzymes
- Quantification of reducing sugars to measure enzyme activity
- Application of purified enzymes in industries like pulp and paper
Future Prospects
Research into microbial enzyme production is ongoing. Whether fungi or bacteria, microorganisms offer immense industrial potential. Many fungal isolates are still being explored for their ability to produce cellulases and other valuable enzymes.
Reference
¹ Evaluation and Production of Cellulases from Aspergillus Niger Using Diverse Agro-Waste Substrates.
ResearchGate
Role of Sugar in our Body: Negative and Positive Aspects
Why we need sugar?
We often think sugar has a bad impact on our health and it has direct link with Diabetes but sugar play very important role in our body it act as a fuel for our body to work it gives energy to our brain and fuel us in intense workout then why it is considered as a bad thing?. The answer is taking sugar in excess quantity is harmful and can cause health problems like obesity, diabetes and heart diseases.
We will be checking the types of sugar their impact on our body and the biochemical pathways through which sugar is processed in our body.
Definition of Sugar
sugar is a simple or complex carbohydrate the most important sugar in our body is glucose which is the primary source of energy for our brain, only glucose can cross blood brain barrier and brain only utilize glucose for energy
Some Common Types of Sugar
- Glucose: Simple sugar and probably the main source of energy
- Fructose: Commonly found in Fruits
- Sucrose: Sucrose is the common table sugar and combination glucose+ fructose
- Lactose: This sugar found in Milk. Some people have lactose intolerance they have kind of allergy from lactose upon consuming lactose they get symptoms like headache this best treatment is use of enzyme lactase which breaks down lactose which is then digestible [1]
How glucose fuel our body
Glycolysis: In the process in our body Glucose is converted in to pyruvate generating ATPs which are considered as major energy currency of cells, nearly all cells use ATPs for their proper functioning
What if glucose is not present or not taken what will happen?
The process called gluconeogenesis will occur it will result in the formation of glucose from non carbohydrate source that will provide required energy
Glucose for Brain Functioning: 20% of the body’s glucose supply is used by our brain.
During Exercise: During Intense workout work body need energy and it is provided in the form of glucose
What Happens When We Consume Too Much Sugar?
Excessive use of added sugars in our diet especially drinking soft drinks, candies, and processed foods can disturb our body’s metabolism
Health Risks of Too Much Sugar:
-
Weight gain and obesity
-
Insulin resistance ( we have to take insulin to maintain our blood glucose level)
-
Increased risk of cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack
-
Too much consumption of sugar can affect our teeth
- Consuming sugar than required can cause early aging that’s why health conscious people avoid over consuming artificial sugar
- Hyperglycemia: A condition where blood glucose level is increased and it leads to disease like type 2 Diabetes
Natural Sugars vs. Added Sugars
Source of Natural Sugar
- Different fruits like apples, bananas, grapes and honey etc. These are packed with essential nutrients, minerals and vitamins which can low sugar absorption and are very beneficial for health
Added sugar source
- soda, sweets, baked goods. Added sugar provide no as such nutritional value and these are considered as empty calorie as mentioned above over use of added sugar in our diet can have serious outcomes that’s why should be avoided.
Innovations in Natural Sweeteners
A sugar called allulose which provide same sweetness as added sugar it can be consider as a replacement for added sugar[2]
Health Tip
Trying consuming 10 % of sugar only in your overall daily diet.
Conclusion:
In conclusion sugar plays a very important role in the human body by major source of energy. As we say excess of everything is bad this quotation imply here perfectly sugar is need of our body but it should be in limit.
References
[1] Cleveland Clinic. “Lactase Capsules or Tablets.” Cleveland Clinic, n.d.,
[2] Sweet Additions. “Sugar Reduction Trends: Our Custom Solution.” Sweet Additions, 1 Aug. 2024,
5 Healthy Breakfast Foods That Our Body Needs
Breakfast
Breakfast is very important, as it provides the body with an adequate amount of calories to maintain energy throughout the day. The ideal time for breakfast is between 7:00 AM and 9:00 AM. Our body’s condition is a clear indicator of the type of diet we need. Following a balanced diet based on your BMI is crucial. Some diet plans may work perfectly for one individual but prove ineffective for another, the reason lies in our unique body needs. With that in mind, here are five of the best foods everyone should consider including in their breakfast.
Apples
Besides its immense amount of nutritional value, apples are also quite refreshing indeed. This is due the fact that they contain antioxidants such as quercetin and chlorogenic acid, and these help lower inflammation and oxidative stress, both of which contribute to chronic health issues like cancer or heart disease [1]. Their consumption is also associated with better cardiovascular health, probably due to the apple-derived flavonoids reducing the risk of heart issues [2].
In tackling obesity, apples are unrivalled due to the water and fiber they contain, aiding satiety and lowering calorie consumption. Some researchers are even proposing a link between weight gain and consumption of flavonoid-rich fruits like apples [3]. Additionally, apples assist in maintaining a healthy microbiome; their pectin is a prebiotic, nourishing gut bacteria and enhancing digestion and immune response [4].
In addition to aiding gut health and controlling weight, apples have the potential to lower blood sugar levels and the risk of developing type-2 diabetes. This is attributed to their polyphenols that help insulin sensitivity which are quite helpful for blood-sugar managers [5]. Sliced in a salad, blended in a smoothie or eaten raw as a quick snack – apples remain an ideal choice for everyone.
Eggs
Having 2 to 3 boiled eggs for breakfast, depending on your body’s requirements, can be a great source of energy. Eggs are rich in high-quality protein and provide the kind of boost your body needs to start the day. They also contain essential vitamins and minerals that support muscle repair, brain function, and metabolism.
Whole Grain Bread
Whole grain bread, especially those without added sugar, is a smart choice — particularly for individuals who are at risk of diabetes or already managing the condition. Brown or whole grain bread is a good source of fiber and contains lower amounts of carbohydrates compared to refined white bread. Consuming 2 to 4 slices can help keep you full and support steady blood sugar levels throughout the morning.
Greek Yogurt with Fruits
Greek yogurt is rich in protein and probiotics which helps us in digestion and gut health which is very important . For you are considering more dense breakfast packed with essential nutrients, Greek yogurt can be paired with fresh fruits such as berries, bananas and apples. The combination of these foods creates a breakfast that is rich in fiber, natural sweetness, and even contains antioxidants, which can strengthen your body’s defense mechanism. This combination effectively sustains satiation for longer durations.
Oatmeal
Oatmeal is an excellent breakfast choice as it is nutritious, versatile, and easy to prepare. It contains high levels of soluble fiber such as oat beta-glucan which has been shown to lower cholesterol and keep blood sugar steady. Oatmeal is good for cardiovascular health as well as digestive health. It can also be customized by adding nuts, seeds, honey, or fruits to make it heartier and more delectable without compromising health.
References
[1] Boyer, J., & Liu, R. H. (2004). Apple phytochemicals and their health benefits. Nutrition Journal, 3(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-3-5
[2] Mink, P. J., et al. (2007). Flavonoid intake and cardiovascular disease mortality: a prospective study in postmenopausal women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85(3), 895–909. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.3.895
[3] Bertoia, M. L., et al. (2015). Changes in intake of fruits and vegetables and weight change in United States men and women followed for up to 24 years: analysis from three prospective cohort studies. BMJ, 351, h3576. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h3576
[4] Slavin, J. (2013). Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients, 5(4), 1417–1435. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5041417
[5] Muraki, I., et al. (2013). Fruit consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: results from three prospective longitudinal cohort studies. BMJ, 347, f5001. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f5001
Importance of Protein In Our Body
Proteins are basic biomolecules that serve every cell within the body. Cellular metabolism requires various types of proteins as machinery for carrying out activities and for maintaining life.
Structure & Composition of Proteins
The interaction of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is governed by the formation of covalent bonds known as peptide bonds. A protein is made up of 20 standard amino acids, each possessing a distinct side branch that determines a protein’s functions and characteristics. With respect to a polypeptide backbone, the spatial arrangement and order of protein subunits specify its tertiary structure [1].
Proteins Functions
• Pepsin and many other proteins take up the form of enzymes and conduct catalytic activities within the metabolism of living organisms. An example is an enzyme for digestion that breaks down the food by acting upon it while it is in the stomach, termed pepsin [6]
• Connective tissues of human beings, alongside tissues such as skin, hair and nails, contain a protein referred to as collagen which serves to give strength, while keratin serves structural integrity [6].
• Specialized proteins such as hemoglobin serve the purpose of moving oxygen to all sections of the body from lungs, as heme and oxygen transporters transport it across. Another specialized protein known as ferritin serves the purpose of containing iron in liver [6].
• Anti-foreign agents termed as antibodies stem from proteins and serve the function of identifying strangers start neutralization setters for foreign agents [6].
• Some physiological activities are controlled by signaling hormones of insulin as an example, that take the form of proteins [6].
Protein Digestion and Absorption
The digestion of protein starts in the stomach, and progresses in the small intestines with the help of pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin, all of which cut down the peptid chains into amino acids. These amino acids then get absorbed in the bloodstream, becoming available for the body to utilize [6].
Animal and Plant Sources of Protein
Proteins are sourced from both animals and plants:
– Animal-Based Proteins: These include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and even yogurt, dairy, etc. These are the so called complete proteins [2]
– Plant-Based Proteins: You can find these in legumes, seeds, nuts and whole grains ([2]).
Protein Intake Recommendations
The Recommended Dietary Allowance or RDA of dietary protein is 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight for sedentary adults throughout the day [2]
Food Rich in Protein
• Chicken Breast: delivers 26g in 3 ounces serving [4].
• Cottage Cheese: 23.5g of protein in each cup [4]
• Lentils: serving of 1 cup of cooked lentils gives 18g protein [5].
• Peanuts: 7.3g of protein in each ounce [5]
• Eggs: containing 6g each of protein, each large egg adds up to this count [5]
Protein Quality and Bioavailability
The value of protein is determined by the quantity of amino acids present and the digestibility of the protein. Comparatively, animal proteins having higher bioavailability is a generally accepted fact when compared to plant proteins [2]
Considerations Pertaining to Health and Protein Consumption
Sufficient protein consumption is linked to:
– The preservation of muscles
– Management of weight
– Health of the bones
– Due to a lack of authority on the issue, research also suggests social engagement affords individuals with a reliable aid system a great deal of confidence.
Protein related diseases
Protein Deficiency can lead to disease ?
Yes, both consuming too little or too much protein can have negative effects on the body and may lead to various health issues. One prominent disease associated with protein deficiency is kwashiorkor. It can cause edema (swelling) in the legs. People who consume very low amounts of protein in their diet are at risk of developing this condition. Kwashiorkor can affect both children and adults, and cases are mostly reported in poor and developing countries where maintaining a balanced diet is challenging [8].
Coping with the Challenge of Protein Deficiency
The main cure for this type of disease is maintaining a good and balanced diet that includes all the essential amino acids required for the proper functioning of the body. Consuming more protein than necessary can also negatively impact health, especially in individuals who heavily rely on protein sources while cutting down on carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are also essential for the body’s proper functioning and should not be eliminated from the diet [8].
References
[1] MedlinePlus Genetics. What Are Proteins and What Do They Do? MedlinePlus, U.S. National Library of Medicine, https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/howgeneswork/protein/.
[2] MedlinePlus. “Dietary Proteins. MedlinePlus, U.S. National Library of Medicine, https://medlineplus.gov/dietaryproteins.html.
[3] 9 Important Functions of Protein in Your Body. Healthline, https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/functions-of-protein.
[4] 17 High-Protein Foods That Beat a Protein Shake.” Health, https://www.health.com/high-protein-foods-that-beat-protein-shakes-11706410.
[5] “16 Foods for High Protein Meals.” Healthline, https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/high-protein-foods.
[6] Protein. Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein.
[7] Protein Foods Group – One of the Five Food Groups.” MyPlate.gov, https://www.myplate.gov/eat-healthy/protein-foods.
[8] https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/humannutrition/chapter/diseases-involving-proteins/